Effect of a physical activity program on fitness perception of 9 to 11-year-old schoolchildren

Efecto de un programa de actividad física sobre el fitness percibido en escolares de 9 a 11 años

Introduction

Available scientific evidence supporting the positive effects of physical activity (PA) has increased greatly in recent years (Reyes-Amigo & Soto-Sánchez, 2021; Tapia-Serrano et al., 2022), stoking the interest of researchers in the field of fitness (Baquet et al., 2010), given the impact that improved fitness has on health (Janssen & Leblanc, 2010). Further, PA also has a big impact on self-perceptions, which is an important psychosocial factor involved in the development of children and adolescents (Coelho et al., 2014). Self-perceptions are the perceptions that individuals have of themselves at any given moment (Ferrari et al., 2022). This indicator is relevant because it is positively associated with PA engagement (Baceviciene et al., 2019; Grao-Cruces et al., 2014; Videra-García & Reigal-Garrido, 2013), which, in turn, is also positively related to quality of life (Gálvez Casas et al., 2016). Indeed, the importance of participation in PA programs focused on improving physical fitness (PF) (Janz et al., 2002) lies in the fact that several studies have found a relationship between greater PF, self-concept and intention to continue being active (Guillamón et al., 2018). In this regard, it is necessary to implement programs that effectively target fitness perceptions (FP), not only fitness itself and its traditional physiological components (Dios et al., 2019; Reyes-Amigo et al., 2018; Salmon et al., 2007; Verstraete et al., 2006), which have been evaluated mainly through physical tests (Ruiz et al., 2011). Such approaches must be evaluated through subjective methods, such as the Screening for and Promotion of Health-Related Quality of Life in Children and Adolescents (KIDSCREEN) tool (Aymerich et al., 2005) and the International Fitness Scale (IFIS) (Ortega et al., 2011). The school context is of vital importance given that, in most countries around the world, children and adolescents attend school for a period of 10 to 12 years. In this sense, the importance of awakening and informing FP lies in the fact that poor FP have been found to predict the emergence of certain psychological problems, such as image anxiety, low self-esteem and dissatisfaction with life (Crocker et al., 2003; Crocker et al., 2007). Likewise, some studies (Ensrud-Skraastad & Haga, 2020) have reported a connection between body composition and FP, with schoolchildren with a higher body mass index (BMI) being more likely to present poor FP. In addition, the current issues of interest takes on further importance because it covers some of the variables that can impact personal well-being of children and adolescents (Kyle et al., 2016), whilst also influencing their social setting (Sanz et al., 2023). This makes it necessary to implement new strategies that promote fitness and FP. Such strategies include PA programs using games in physical education (PE) classes (Reyes-Amigo et al., 2018), modified sports and thematic games, all of which place an emphasis on fun and enjoyment. In this regard, the aim of the present study was to analyze the effect of a PA program on FP in nine-to-11-year-old students.

Method

This research is experimental in nature and followed a quasi-experimental design (Figure 1) with an experimental (EG) and non-equivalent control group (CG). A pretest-posttest design was applied to both groups. The study was carried out in a school located in La Calera, Valparaíso, Chile.

Participants

The sample included 24 participants attending the 4^th and 5^th grade of elementary school. A total of 16 boys and eight girls participated with an average age of 10.45 ± .887 years. Sexual maturity according to Tanner ranged from one to two (Tanner & Whitehouse, 1976). Participants were selected according to intentional non-probability sampling (Thomas & Nelson, 2007). Participants were divided into an experimental group (EG) and a control group (CG) via simple randomization (Lim & In, 2019). Inclusion criteria stipulated that participants were to be in sufficient health to be able to engage in PA and regularly attend PE classes prior to the intervention. Participants were excluded if they had a lower than 80% attendance to PE classes where the intervention was applied, presented with an adverse reaction to the stimulus provided by the PA program, participated in PA programs outside of school hours, or tested positive for COVID-19. Four students were excluded for low attendance during the intervention leaving a final sample of 20 participants. Specifically, the CG included 10 participants (seven boys and three girls) and the EG comprised 10 participants (six boys and four girls). Both the CG and EG received classes twice a week on different days and times. The EG engaged in the intervention while the CG continued with their regular PE classes. The study was designed according to the international ethical regulations of the Declaration of Helsinki, 1975 (Manzini, 2000). Approval was received from the Scientific Ethics Committee of the Universidad de Playa Ancha, Chile (2019, 20-06-19). All study participants provided written consent from their parents or legal guardians and had authorization from their school.

Intervention

The intervention was carried out two times a week over a period of 12 weeks during timetabled physical education classes. Classes were divided into three parts. Each started with a five-minute warm-up with joint mobility and short distance speed exercises. This was followed by a 30-minute activity consisting of nine cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) exercises, nine muscular strength (MS) exercises and eight Tabata exercises. All classes finished with a five-minute cool down (full details provided in Table 1).

The same learning objective was set for physical education classes in both the experimental group and the control group, however, the control group continued with their regular activities without receiving any specific intervention.

Sessions were administered by two physical education teachers. Teacher one introduced the objective of the session, executed all stages of the class, demonstrated all CRF and MS exercises and kept time. Teacher two arranged all elements of the session prior to its start, organized activities during the session and put everything away at the end, provided feedback on execution, measured perceived effort (PEInfant) and kept time.

The intensity of the execution of exercises was monitored via the self-report the PEInfant scale (Rodríguez-Núñez et al., 2019). For this, students were asked to rate how tired they were before, during and after exercise completion. Ratings were given on a visual scale that contained the numbers from zero to 10 alongside images depicting the concomitant level of fatigue.

A total of 13 mats, 13 rings, 13 canes, 13 balls, 13 elastic bands, 13 PEInfant scales (for measurement of perceived exertion), 78 pyramidal cones and an LG model FH2 speaker were used.

Instruments

The IFIS questionnaire was used to measure perceptions of fitness and of some of its components (Ortega et al., 2011). This is a self-report instrument, in which respondents provide their responses on a piece of paper. Students were requested to think, firstly, about their own fitness and, secondly, about their fitness in relation to their PE classmates. With this in mind, they were instructed to respond to each question with a rating that corresponded to very bad, bad, acceptable, good, or very good. The test was administered whilst respondents were seated with a single blank answer sheet on a table in front of them (Cárdenas, 2016). All responses were given individually. Two teachers were present throughout during the administration of questionnaires. Baseline and follow-up measurements were carried out with both groups on the same day. Maturity was evaluated by asking participants to rate their own pubertal stage in line with images of the Tanner stages. Classifications were then performed individually and independently in a specially-assigned room whilst a pediatrician monitored the process. All participants were able to allocate themselves to one of the five sex-specific stages described in reference to the Tanner scale (Tanner & Whitehouse, 1976).

Statistical Analysis

Once data collection was concluded, all response data were input into a statistical program to examine descriptive statistics. Next, the Shapiro Wilk test was performed to establish the data distribution. Later, the non-parametric Mann-Whitney U test was performed in order to establish group differences. Further, the Wilcoxon test was performed to examine whether significant differences existed between the groups. Significance was set at p < .05. All data analysis was performed using the statistical software Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 25. Effect sizes (ES) were calculated in accordance to Hedges' g, with .2 indicating a small effect, .5 indicating a medium effect and .8 indicating a large effect (Apaza et al., 2021).

Results

Next, the main results of the study are discussed. Sample characteristics are presented according to age, weight, and size in Table 2. It can be seen that, following the application of exclusion criteria, the sample was comprised of 20 participants, in which 13 were boys and seven were girls. Average age was 10.45 years old and average weight was 51.82 kilograms. Average height was 146 centimeters.

Next, Table three presents frequencies pertaining to baseline responses for FP, CRFP and MSP questions and relevant categories of the IFIS in both groups. As shown in Table three, with regards to baseline responses to IFIS categories and FP in the CG, two students reported perceiving that they had poor fitness, six reported acceptable fitness and two reported perceiving themselves to have good fitness. With regards to the CRFP, three respondents reported poor fitness, two reported acceptable fitness and five reported good fitness. With regards to MSP, three reported poor fitness and seven reported acceptable fitness. With regards to CG responses to the FP question following the intervention, outcomes revealed that one participant perceived themselves to have poor fitness, seven reported acceptable fitness and two reported good fitness. With regards to the CRFP, six participants reported acceptable fitness and four reported good fitness. In relation to the MSP, two respondents reported poor fitness, four reported acceptable fitness, three reported good fitness and one reported very good fitness. Turning attention to the EG, baseline responses to the FP question revealed that one participant perceived themselves to have very poor fitness, three reported poor fitness, five reported acceptable fitness and one reported good fitness. With regards to MSP responses, one participant perceived themselves to have very poor fitness, five reported bad fitness and four reported acceptable fitness. Following the intervention, with regards to FP, seven EG participants perceived themselves to have good fitness and three participants perceived themselves to have very good fitness. With regards to CRFP, six participants perceived themselves to have acceptable fitness and four perceived themselves to have good fitness. Finally, with regards to MSP, three participants reported good fitness and seven reported very good fitness.

Table four presents median, standard deviation and p values produced from the analysis of independent samples and the comparative analysis conducted between groups of baseline and post-intervention PFP, CRFP, and MSP outcomes from the IFIS. Specifically, the Mann-Whitney U test for two independent samples was used.

In this regard, comparative analysis of the medians for the three variables studied at baseline (FP CG = 3; FP EG = 2.9; CRFP CG = 2.9; CRFP EG = 2.6; MSP CG = 2.7; MSP EG = 2.3) reveals no significant differences between the groups prior to the start of the intervention. Following the intervention, analysis of the medians for the three studied variables (FP CG = 3.1; FP EG = 4.3; CRFP CG = 3.4, CRFP EG = 4.4; MSP CG = 3.3; MSP EG = 4.7) reveals significant differences between the groups following the end of the intervention. At first, no significant differences were present between CG and EG in any of the three variables (FP: .721, p < .05; CRFP: .460, p < .05; MSP: .156, p < 0.05). However, following the intervention, significant differences were found between the two groups for all of the three measured variables (FP: .000, p < .05; CRFP: .002, p < .05; MSP: .002, p < .05). With regards to the magnitude of the effect of the intervention, Hedges g outcomes (FP CG = 0.15; FP EG = 1.71; CRFP CG = 0.15; CRFP EG = 2.50; MSP CG = 1.14; MSP EG = 3.34) indicate that the estimated effect size based on the observed differences between groups is large in connection to the examined variables.

Table five presents median values and comparative outcomes pertaining to inter-group comparisons and intra-group comparisons prior to and following the intervention in both study groups for the FP, CRFP and MSP variables of the IFIS.

With regards to outcomes of the intragroup comparison in CG (FP CG = .317; CRFP CG = .059; MSP CG = .034), no significant differences emerged within the CG once the intervention was completed. In relation to the intragroup comparison in GE (FP GE = .004; CRFP GE = .004; MSP GE = .004), outcomes reveal that significant differences exist between baseline and post-intervention scores.

Discussion

The main finding of the present study reiterates that previously reported Segovia and Gutiérrez (2020), in which students who participated in a PA program, in the form of PE classes, over a period of 5 weeks, in which specific exercises were incorporated to stimulate components of FP, obtained improvements in FP. This should be considered in light of findings presented by existing scientific literature regarding the benefits of appropriate FP and the effect of this on promoting improvements in fitness and at a psychological and social level (Palacios et al., 2022). This is particularly important at the critical stage under consideration in the present study (childhood and adolescence), given that many of the habits that will be engaged in throughout later life are established at this stage. In the same way, improved FP, alongside a better body image, may be important factors underlying student self-perceptions when they engage in PA. This can be hugely important during childhood and adolescence (Kyle et al., 2016). Indeed, outcomes do not only affect one aspect of students’ lives but, also, can be transferred to other areas such as academic performance, sporting activities and social relationships. (Ruiz-Montero et al., 2020). In this way, FP can have a huge impact on the aforementioned areas, leading to the acquisition of different habits pertaining to an active lifestyle and the avoidance of certain harmful behaviors (Garrido et al., 2012). In the same way, Lizarazo et al (2020), previously discussed the relationship between physical activity and heightened self-esteem in children and adolescents. They argued that, during the school stage, children are involved in events with a high emotional load due to social issues, body changes, problems at home and bullying, amongst others. This causes stress, depression and low self-esteem. In this study, it was revealed that students who rarely or irregularly engage in physical activity are more likely to have low self-esteem, poor mental health and acquire unhealthy habits.

Consolidating the importance of obtained outcomes regarding FP, it is crucial to highlight the need to include strategies in the educational field that enable, through PA engagement, variables related to physical self-concept or FP to be properly and fully evaluated considering that they may be associated with better perceptions of the abilities needed to tackle academic tasks (Chaddock et al., 2011). Alongside this, physical activity programs are a strategy that target improvements in CF. This, not only positively affects physical health but, also, mental health. Further, the evaluation of such programs provides empirical evidence (Velez et al., 2010) that underlines the importance of CF in the analysis of self-concept. Further, physical exercise is considered to be a purposeful and intentional activity that positively affects self-perception in young people (Garn et al., 2019). In this way, it is clear that targeting these parameters is essential for motivating young people to engage in physical activity (Vedul-Kjelsås et al., 2012).

Limitations

Firstly, one of the limitations of the present study is the low number of participants involved in the PA program delivered during PE classes. This was due to the poor health conditions generated by the presence of COVID-19, which majorly affected the ability of students to attend classes. Secondly, only a very limited amount of literature examining the effect of PA school programs on PF could be identified and used to frame the discussion of present findings.

Conclusions

The main finding of the present study is that the examined PA program had a significantly positive effect on PF, CRFP and MSP. Hence, the program examined here offers a potential strategy to consider in the school context as a means to extending the reach of present findings to other ambits such as the psychological, academic and social ambits.

Acknowledgments

Observatory of Physical Activity Sciences (OCAF), University of Playa Ancha. General Directorate of Research, University of Playa Ancha; Research Project: DGI UPLA 2019, EFI 01-2021. Financial support for article processing fees, University of Playa Ancha.

Bibliography

Author notes

*Correspondence: Tomás Reyes-Amigo, tomas.reyes@upla.cl

Additional information

Short title: Effect of a physical activity program on fitness perception

How to cite this article: Sepúlveda-Figueroa, F., Bezerra, A., Correia de Freitas, L., Cristi-Montero, C., Hurtado-Almonácid, J., Páez-Herrera, J., Carrasco-Beltrán, H., Zavala-Jara, M., Ibarra-Mora, J., Mendoza, E., & Reyes-Amigo, T. (2023). Effect of a physical activity program on fitness perception of 9 to 11-year-old schoolchildren. Cultura, Ciencia y Deporte,18(58), 129-137. https://doi.org/10.12800/ccd.v18i58.2061

Cultura, Ciencia y Deporte
ISSN: 1696-5043
Vol. 18
Num. 58
Año. 2023

Effect of a physical activity program on fitness perception of 9 to 11-year-old schoolchildren

FelipeAndréaLauraCarlosJuanJacquelineHernaldoMarceloJessicaEdgardoTomás Sepúlveda-FigueroaBezerraCorreia de FreitasCristi-MonteroHurtado-AlmonácidPáez-HerreraCarrasco-BeltránZavala-JaraIbarra-MoraMendozaReyes-Amigo
Universidad de Playa AnchaUniversidade do PortoPontificia Universidad Católica de ValparaísoPontificia Universidad Católica de ValparaísoUniversidad Metropolitana de las Ciencias de la Educación,ChilePortugalChileChileChile